Biogenic Nanoparticles for Water Treatment, Heavy Metal Removal, and Pathogen Control in Wastewater Systems

The increasing burden of water pollution due to industrialization, urbanization, and agricultural activities has intensified the need for sustainable and efficient wastewater treatment technologies. Conventional treatment methods often suffer from limitations such as high cost, secondary pollution, and inefficiency in removing emerging contaminants. In this context, biogenic nanoparticles have emerged as a promising eco-friendly alternative due to their unique physicochemical properties and green synthesis routes. This review comprehensively examines the role of biogenic nanoparticles in water treatment, with particular emphasis on heavy metal removal and pathogen control. The mechanisms underlying adsorption, reduction, photocatalysis, and antimicrobial activity are critically discussed. Various biological sources, including plants, bacteria, fungi, and algae, used in nanoparticle synthesis are highlighted. Furthermore, the review evaluates recent advancements, challenges in large-scale application, and future prospects for integrating biogenic nanotechnology into wastewater management systems. The findings suggest that biogenic nanoparticles hold significant potential for developing cost-effective, sustainable, and efficient water purification strategies.